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type="orcid">0000-0002-8217-4025</idno> + </resp> + <orgName>Fachhochschule Potsdam</orgName> + </respStmt> + <respStmt> + <resp>Publiziert von</resp> + <orgName role="marc_pbl">Herzog August Bibliothek</orgName> + </respStmt> + <respStmt> + <resp>Transformation der Word Vorlage nach TEI</resp> + <name role="marc_trc"> + <surname>Baumgarten</surname> + <forename>Marcus</forename> + <idno type="gnd">1192832655</idno> + </name> + </respStmt> + <availability status="free"> + <p>Available at <ref target="http://www.zfdg.de">https://www.zfdg.de</ref> + </p> + </availability> + <biblScope unit="sonderband">5</biblScope> + <biblScope unit="artikel">9</biblScope> + </monogr> + </biblStruct> + </title> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition>Elektronische Ausgabe nach TEI P5</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <distributor> + <name> + <orgName>Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel</orgName> + </name> + </distributor> + <idno type="doi">10.17175/sb005</idno> + <idno type="ppn">1764792149</idno> + <idno type="url">https://www.zfdg.de/sonderband/5</idno> + <date when="2022-05-20">20.05.2022</date> + <authority> + <name>Herzog August Bibliothek</name> + <address> + <addrLine/> + </address> + </authority> + <authority> + <name>Forschungsverbund MWW</name> + <address> + <addrLine/> + </address> + </authority> + <availability status="free"> + <p> Sofern nicht anders angegeben </p> + <licence target="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY SA 4.0</licence> + </availability> + <availability status="free"> + <p> Available at <ref target="workID">https://www.zfdg.de"> (c) Forschungsverbund + MWW</ref> + </p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <p>Einreichung zum Call for Publications im Rahmen der vDHd21.</p> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + <editorialDecl> + <p>Transformation der WORD-Vorlage nach XML/TEI-P5 durch die Oxgarage und eigenen XSLT; + Lektorat des Textes durch die Herausgeber*innen und die Redaktion der ZfdG.</p> + <p>Medienrechte liegen bei den Autor*innen.</p> + <p>All links checked<date when="2022">30.03.2022</date> + </p> + </editorialDecl> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <creation>Einreichung für den Sonderband 5 der Zeitschrift für digitale + Geisteswissenschaften.</creation> + <langUsage> + <language ident="de">Text in Deutsch</language> + <language ident="de">Abstract in Deutsch</language> + <language ident="en">Abstract in Englisch</language> + </langUsage> + <textClass> + <keywords scheme="gnd"> + <term>Videospiel<ref target="4063465-6"/> + </term> + <term>Anthropogeografie<ref target="4133695-1"/> + </term> + <term>Feldforschung<ref target="4016674-0"/> + </term> + <term>Landschaft<ref target="4034343-1"/> + </term> + <term>Teilnehmende Beobachtung<ref target="4184622-9"/> + </term> + </keywords> + </textClass> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change/> + </revisionDesc> + </teiHeader> + <text> + <body> + <div> + <div type="abstract"> + <argument xml:lang="de"> + <p>Visuelles Landschaftserleben im Sinne der neueren Kulturgeographie bedeutet, + dass soziokultureller Kontext und Umwelt erst durch individuelle + Bedeutungszuweisungen zueinander in Beziehung gesetzt werden. Landschaft wird + also nicht als vorgegeben betrachtet, sondern erst im Moment des Betrachtens + diskursiv konstruiert. Über die individuellen Konstruktionsweisen von digitalen + Landschaften ist in diesem Zusammenhang noch wenig bekannt. Sind Landschaften + in Videospielen nur eine detailreiche Kulisse? Locken am Horizont Affordanzen? + Oder entwickeln Spieler*innen ihre jeweils eigenen Konstruktionsweisen? Unser + methodischer Ansatz zur Beantwortung dieser Fragen ist doppelt experimentell. + Zunächst erweitern wir die Methode des textbasierten <term type="dh">close + reading</term> in seiner Variante des <term type="dh">close playing</term> + auf digitale <term type="dh">walk-alongs</term> im Sinne der + geographischen Feldforschung. In einem zweiten Schritt nutzen wir das + etablierte Inventar der <term type="dh">image schemata</term> für die + Annotation von aus Screencasts gewonnen Keyframes. Hauptbefund ist, dass es + eine gewisse Spielfertigkeit erfordert, um eine Landschaft überhaupt + individuell anders inszenieren zu können als von der Spielmechanik gefordert. + Zweitens kann je nach Spielstil Landschaft als eine Aura wirksam werden, die + nicht nur das Spielgeschehen als entfernte Kulisse rahmt, sondern auch die + Ziele der Spieler*innen in allen weiteren Interaktionen mit dem Spiel + beeinflusst.</p> + </argument> + <argument xml:lang="en"> + <p>Experiencing visual landscape in the sense of newer cultural geography means + relating socio-cultural context and environment by individual sense-making. + Landscape is therefore not considered pre-given, it is discursively constructed + in the very moment of watching. In the context of digital landscapes, little is + known of the individual sense-making. Do landscapes only set the scene in video + games? Are affordances set on the horizon? Or do the players create their own + ways of enacting? Our methodological approach to answer these questions is + doubly experimental. First, we extend the method of text-based <term type="dh" + >close reading</term> in its variant of <term type="dh">close playing</term> + to digital <term type="dh">walk-alongs</term> in the sense of geographical + field research. In a second step we use the established inventory of <term + type="dh">image schemata</term> for the annotation of key frames extracted + from observed screencasts. As main findings, we found that it requires a + certain skill level to enact landscape any different than simply compliant to + the game mechanics. Secondly, we found that depending on the style of playing, + landscape can be enacted as an aura that not simply frames the game as distant + scenery, but also influences the mindset for all further interactions with the + game.</p> + </argument> + + </div> + <div type="chapter"> + <head>1. Introduction</head> + <p>Recently, the long-established study of video games<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref + type="bibliography" target="#aarseth_typology_2003">Aarseth et + al. 2003</ref>.</note> made initial steps towards embracing contemporary + conceptualisations and framing of space and place<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#guenzel_space_2008">Günzel + 2008</ref>; <ref type="bibliography" target="#aarseth_ludotopia_2019">Aarseth / Günzel 2019</ref>.</note>. This study leverages methodological and + theoretical advances in cultural geographies and the digital humanities to + advocate for <term type="dh">close playing</term> + <note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#indersat_medien_2020">Inderst 2020</ref>. </note> through a lens of the geographic + concept of landscapes,<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" + target="#rose_feminism_1996">Rose 1996</ref>.</note> through which we + identify and interrogate the functions and assemblages of spacing<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#schatzki_site_2002">Schatzki 2002</ref>.</note> in different types of video + games.</p> + </div> + <div type="chapter"> + <head>2. Related work</head> + + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>2.1 Constituents of gameplay</head> + + <p>Our analysis operationalises Aarseth’s<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#aarseth_theory_2012">Aarseth + 2012</ref>.</note> core ontology of video games:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>Player: the impersonation of the core game agent by a controlling human + being</item> + <item>Object: a single game element, players can interact with</item> + <item>Agent: any other being a player can interact with</item> + <item>Setting: an assemblage of visualized game elements, players cannot + interact with without movement</item> + <item>Event: game situation that occurs regularly or randomly</item> + </list> + <p>When conceptualised and presented as embodying <term type="dh">Homo + ludens</term>,<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#huizinga_homo_1987">Huizinga et al. 1987</ref>.</note> the + subject in the player-game relation pursues no higher purpose than generating + and extracting joy through software-based freedom of choice in an ad hoc + setting. In contrast to the fluidity characterising spaces of play, the act of + gaming in the digital space is defined and constrained by a set of well-defined + game mechanics, parameters, and affordances. Extrapolating from Esposito, one + reduces the video game to a digital apparatus designed and intended for + ›ludens‹, in which settings, environments, and narratives collectively + constitute a playable space for the resituated subject-avatar.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#esposito_definition_2005">Esposito 2005</ref>.</note> A resituating of the player is + functionalised by, and contingent to, forms and degrees of immersiveness and + interactivity; Esposito’s definition centres this relation on the interactivity + of a video game as mediated through audio and visual stimuli and essentialises + the digital as medial. The technical and denarrativized design of video game + functionality and elements of play, and consequent research within this sphere, + indirectly underscore interactivity and immersion as key elements of the player + experience.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#williams_players_2019">Williams / Smith 2007</ref>.</note> Converse + to the technical are the strands within game research, which leverage + approaches from the social sciences to explore the societal positionality and + psychosocial functionality of games, generally through the use of empirical + methods such as surveys and controlled laboratory experiments.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#lankoski_game_2015">Lankoski / Björk 2015</ref>.</note> The resulting body of + knowledge demonstrates the linkages between the player experience, game + mechanics, and aesthetics, and highlights the centrality of these elements in + contemporary game design.</p> + <p>Humanities-informed approaches situate games as constructing and construing + meanings that reflect and / or undermine broader sociocultural and media + discourses. Empirically, interpretative methods are most commonly used to + examine and deconstruct sense-making within video games; close reading, text + analysis, and audience theory are borrowed from other media disciplines such as + television and film studies. Social science and humanities approaches may + therefore overlap, for example in the case of ethnographic or folkloristic + studies, where fieldwork may include a form of observation or + pseudo-ethnography of games in an attempt to understand their social and + cultural meanings. <note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#egenfeldt_games_2015">Egenfeldt-Nielsen et al. 2015</ref>; + <ref type="bibliography" target="#lankoski_game_2015">Lankoski / Björk 2015</ref>.</note> + </p> + <p>We argue that these approaches construct the video game space as a distinctly + digital-geographical space, and as such, prior research examining the + geographical characteristics of games themselves remain highly relevant.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#aarseth_typology_2003">Aarseth et al. 2003</ref>; + <ref type="bibliography" target="#ash_geograph_2011">Ash / Gallacher 2011</ref>. </note> In + consideration of these differentiated approaches, we position a spatial + situated game mechanics as the primary game function linking the player to his + / her own, partially pre-conscious experiences of play. </p> + </div> + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>2.2 Phenomenological framing</head> + + <p>Drawing upon methodologies commonly used for real-world environments we argue + that the act of experiencing digital landscapes is phenomenologically + similar.<note type="footnote"> All constituents may be readily complemented + easily by drawing upon environmental psychology, for example.</note> Of + course, bodily exhaustion caused by movement, weather conditions, or air + quality cannot be experienced the same way in digital worlds.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#cresswell_move_2006">Cresswell 2006</ref>.</note> As the experience of landscape + is bound to a predominantly visual experience<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#rose_feminism_1996">Rose + 1996</ref>.</note> due to the avatar being constricted to spaces accessible by + locomotion, these embodied qualities do not differ significantly. Our + phenomenology of experiencing digital landscapes draws on literature from the + social sciences and humanities concerning </p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>the sense-making of place and </item> + <item>the <term type="dh">stream of consciousness</term> whilst moving and + interacting; </item> + <item>thereafter imbuing our framework with conceptualisations of + landscape.</item> + </list> + <p>Phenomenologically, sense-making of places and integration by movement are + closely linked. Cresswell introduces movement as spatiotemporally enacted + practices (moving your hand, dancing, travelling to a different town) by + locomotion that affords the integration of places with environments.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#cresswell_move_2006">Cresswell 2006</ref>; + <ref type="bibliography" target="#montello_scale_1993">Montello 1993</ref>.</note> Mobility is + socially produced movement, such that it demonstrates contingency of + meaning;<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#cresswell_move_2006">Cresswell 2006</ref>.</note> constructed + meanings of movement constitute the backdrop for geographical imagination and + therefore place mobility as a key means of resituating the subject in the + digital landscape. Within this flow, places can attract attention and provide + fields of action as long as they are stably embedded in their spatial + context.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#tuan_space_1977">Tuan 1977</ref>. </note> Agnew distinguishes + between this quasi-stable position (locale) and the individual meaning (sense + of place).<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#agnew_place_1987">Agnew 1987</ref>. </note> This meaning is + closely bound to human activities enacting it,<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#relph_place_1976">Relph + 1976</ref>. </note> and it is specifically those activities that allows both for + observation and social communication. As places are always places of action, + they can facilitate some actions and impede others;<note type="footnote"> + Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#schatzki_site_2002">Schatzki 2002</ref>.</note> they offer a field of affordances to which actions + can attach.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#gibson_umwelt_1982">Gibson 1982</ref>. </note> We therefore + highlight Löw’s emphasis on the highly emotional suggestive power of + places.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#loew_raumsoziologie_2017">Löw 2017</ref>. </note> If such fields of + affordance are visibly used in the same way in the long run, they are affirmed + and stabilised by individual routines, and they become social places. + Embodiment plays a crucial role at this juncture, as physical settings as well + as discourses can always constrain specific actions. Thus, individual + judgements regarding which actions are possible at a certain place are not only + bound to embodied preferences, but are also extensively socioculturally + mediated.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#loew_raumsoziologie_2017">Löw 2017</ref>.</note> The self-experiences + itself always in a tension between a set of social roles / constraints and a + free individual. Essentially, it is the social more than a geometric dimension + of reality that evokes the feeling of proximity or distance. <note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#schuetz_strukturen_2003">Schütz / Luckmann 2003</ref>.</note> + </p> + <p>The implementation of this phenomenological framework in the study of video + game spaces as digital landscapes requires that we assess how streams of + consciousness assemble and integrate fields of possible actions in a digital + living environment. Implemented in a hermeneutic-phenomenological sense + following Heidegger,<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#crowell_normativity_2013">Crowell 2013</ref>. </note> an object + in the game space is real to its subject if it provides action + disposition.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#schuetz_strukturen_2003">Schütz / Luckmann 2003</ref>.</note> When + considered in conjunction with the emotional aspect described above, a video + game can express a high degree of reality independent of its technical + presentation or environmental realism. </p> + <p>The agent experiences <term type="dh">attention à la vie</term>,<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#schuetz_strukturen_2003">Schütz / Luckmann 2003</ref>, p. 6–7; + <ref type="bibliography" target="#bergson_matiere_1968">Bergson 1968</ref>.</note> + characterised by a temporary singularity in their experience of a + hermeneutic-phenomenological reality. All bodily and haptic manipulations + (re-)produce meaning on a site of action, thereby further constituting place. + The basic assumption of movement is that reality can be re-established by + (loco-)motion and that everything left behind stays unchanged for further + revisit. On the move, reality becomes a rolling panorama gradually changing + (stream of consciousness) while floating through a world. Actions as + transformative manipulations of place are all soaked with memory of earlier + experiences and manipulations and thereby modify memory for the next revisit. + Crouch references explicitly the concepts of game and place when he describes + acting on place as ritualized practice on pre-given codes, habitually + repeated.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#crouch_spacing_2003">Crouch 2003</ref>. </note> Those codes, + usually constantly reconfigured, broken, adjusted or negotiated in real world + environments, act as preconfigured, purposely placed affordances in + gameplay.<note type="footnote"> Cf. visual clues in <ref type="intern" + target="#hd5">chapter 2.3</ref>.</note> + </p> + <p>In this setting, the geographic concept of landscape is right at the edge + between visual discovery of fields of affordances and a rolling panorama on the + move with a certain atmospheric aspect attached to it. Visual experiencing of + landscape in the sense of contemporary cultural geography thus means the active + creation of a relationship between social conditions and environment. Landscape + is therefore not pre-given, rather, it is actively constructed in the very + moment of watching or discovering while moving.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#rose_feminism_1996">Rose + 1996</ref>; <ref type="bibliography" target="#rose_methodologies_2016">Rose 2016</ref>. </note> + </p> + </div> + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>2.3 Space and place in video games</head> + + <p>In recent years, research on video games has been established as a + distinguished and unique artwork in media sciences.<note type="footnote"> + Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#feige_aesthetik_2015">Feige 2015</ref>. </note> An explicit focus on spatial practices in video + games is set by Espen Aarseth and Stephan Günzel who coined the term <term + type="dh">ludotopia</term>.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#aarseth_ludotopia_2019">Aarseth / Günzel + 2019</ref>.</note> As shown above, it is the three aspects of (individual) + phenomenology, the (objective) epistemology and the cultural significance of + space and place that can be questioned.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#guenzel_games_2019">Günzel + 2019</ref>.</note> + </p> + <p>Pablo Abend et al. assert that research on playful participatory practices + constitutes an important part of digital media culture and art.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#abend_practices_2020">Abend et al. 2020</ref>. </note> In that context, they argue + that playing video games is not simply a use of media, but must be thought of + as ongoing (re-)production while playing. Depending on the specific game, + certain influences of the player on the game world can be stated according to + his / her intentionality. <note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#domsch_space_2019">Domsch 2019</ref>; + <ref type="bibliography" target="#guenzel_games_2019">Günzel + 2019</ref>.</note> In addition, Günzel highlights that games do not simply enact + spatial concepts, but are spatial concepts on their own in the sense of + enactivism, if they produce bodily experiences (e. g. Wii, but also VR games). + <note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#guenzel_games_2019">Günzel 2019</ref>. </note> + </p> + <p>Domsch stresses that although all video games are preset, rule-bound + environments, the player’s decisions are relevant.<note type="footnote" + > Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#domsch_space_2019">Domsch 2019</ref>. </note> Depending on the individual way of enacting, + players inscribe a unique narrative into a game setting while moving and + interacting in space. In opposition to sequential narratives like videos, every + decision taken and performance done contributes to a gradual development of a + narrative story. As a discovery journey into fictional otherness, a spatial + narrative functions as <term type="dh">evocative space</term> meant to resemble + carefully constructed existing conceptualisations of space.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#domsch_space_2019">Domsch 2019</ref>. </note> In many cases, it is the explicit + ambiguity of game elements that helps to evocate individual narrations. Careful + constructions are often offered as <term type="dh">visual clues</term>. A + motivation to (inter-)act is even stronger, if the player does not notice as + such. Visual clues can mark both a possibility for interaction or a directional + suggestion.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#domsch_space_2019">Domsch 2019</ref>. </note> + </p> + <p>A special form of meta-narrative is offered by the game <bibl> + <title type="desc">Gone Home</title> + </bibl> which allows it to reflect on cultural artifacts of the 1990s.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#unterhuber_home_2015">Unterhuber 2015</ref>. </note> In this game, players even + have the opportunity to reconstruct prominent discourses of this period in + their own way. Further, Unterhuber highlights that this process is immensely + fostered and only possible by offering it as a game.<note type="footnote" + > Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#unterhuber_home_2015">Unterhuber 2015</ref>. </note> + </p> + <p>Regarding landscape, games produce their own perspectives. Landscapes can, by + design, simply create a mood or atmosphere for a narrative setting,<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#domsch_space_2019">Domsch 2019</ref>. </note> but also open a field of open + exploration as laid out above. In difference to real world environments, many + video games offer shortcuts to prevent real time enactment of navigational + tasks.<note type="footnote"> This is implemented, for example, through + portals, cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#guenzel_games_2019">Günzel 2019</ref>. </note> + </p> + </div> + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>2.4 Digital walk-alongs</head> + + <p>Recurring on the terms close and distant reading,<note type="footnote" + > Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#moretti_reading_2013">Moretti 2013</ref>. </note> the basic process of qualitative critical + analysis of texts can be easily transferred to a number of analyses, including + gameplay. In that sense, for example Rudolf Inderst used the term close + playing.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#indersat_medien_2020">Inderst 2020</ref>. </note> Without naming it, + Joshua Tanenbaum and Jim Bizzocchi propose a similar approach in their paper on <bibl> + <title type="desc">Oblivion</title> + </bibl>.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#tanenbaum_reading_2009">Tanenbaum / Bizzocchi 2009</ref>.</note> In + detail, they propose two categories of analysis: adaptivity & + believability. Whereas adaptivity describes the capability of a game to adapt + to the user's needs, believability reflects the capability of agents in the + game to act human-like towards the user. Methodically, they provide an + elaborated coding system by which they recorded and classified all observable + interactions encountered in gameplay.</p> + <p>In our study, we extend close playing to digital walk-alongs in the tradition + of geographic field research. Proposed by Monica Degen and Gillian Rose, + walk-alongs add to close reading by distinguishing between a person enacting + and a person observing.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#degen_design_2012">Degen / Rose 2012</ref>.</note> In + their original work, they encourage residents of various cities during an + accompanied city walk, to talk as freely as possible about their feelings and + evaluations on site. The background is to obtain data as close as possible to + the bodily experience on site. Counterintuitively, many subjects on site report + their memories of this place in detail, without even taking a look, thus + revealing the effect size of individual narratives in sense-making.</p> + <p>Whereas in close playing players and observers are the same person and validity + is only obtained by intercoder reliability, digital walk-alongs separate both + roles from each other, mitigating priming biases and context switches. In + addition, players do not have to be aware of the aspects observed at all, + strengthening results in an experiment-like situation.</p> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_001" url=".../medien/landscape_2022_001.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb1">Fig. 1</ref>: Key question analysing + visual material. [<ref type="bibliography" target="#rose_methodologies_2016">Rose 2016</ref>, p. 25]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_001"/> + </desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + <p>The soundest approach for visual analysis in geography relates to the work of + Gillian Rose.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#rose_methodologies_2016">Rose 2016</ref>, p. 25; <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_001">Figure 1</ref>. </note> Her code matrix + intersects three types of modalities in the production process of visual + artifacts with four sites of interpretation. </p> + <p>Modalities are:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>technological: by which means was the visual artifact produced?</item> + <item>compositional: how was the visual artifact arranged</item> + <item>social: what is the anticipated social context of the visual + artifact?</item> + </list> + <p>Sites of interpretation are:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>site of production: how was the visual artifact influenced + surroundings?</item> + <item>site of image itself: how was content of the visual artifact + selected?</item> + <item>site of circulation: how was the visual artifact made accessible?</item> + <item>site of audience: what are the anticipated surroundings, in which a + visual artifact is consumed?</item> + </list> + <p>For each cell of the matrix, Rose proposes a number of questions that lead to + an interpretation of different aspects of analysis covering content analysis, + semiology and discourse analysis.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#rose_methodologies_2016">Rose 2016</ref>. </note> + </p> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_002" url=".../medien/landscape_2022_002.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb2">Fig. 2</ref>: Selective list of image + schemata. [<ref type="bibliography" target="#johnson_body_1987">Johnson 1987</ref>, p. 126]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_002"/> + </desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + <p>A more formal and thus more standardized analysis of spatial relatable visual + content can be done recurring on Johnson’s concept of <term type="dh">image + schemata</term>.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#johnson_body_1987">Johnson 1987</ref>; <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_002">Figure 2</ref> for an overview. </note> + Partially relying on Lynch, image schemata can be understood as a general + purpose ontology identifying structural patterns of common-sense geographic + knowledge both in language and views.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#lynch_image_1960">Lynch 1960</ref>. + </note> In computer science, image schemata have been used to formalize + wayfinding tasks, e. g. at airports. <note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#raubal_space_1997">Raubal et + al. 1997</ref>. </note> The cooccurrence of the schemata PATH, LINK and SURFACE, + for instance, was used to model a movement towards a target.</p> + <p>In our explorative study, we use a reduced tagset of 7 schemata useful for the + exploration of games. We identified:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>CONTAINER: physically limited areas that provide a homogenous field of + affordance.</item> + <item>ENABLEMENT: an affordance to interact or react</item> + <item>BLOCKAGE: a game element constraining players’ actions. A special case in + gameplay is, if a visualized object does not offer an anticipated + opportunity for interaction or a map boundary is reached.</item> + <item>PATH: directed locomotion towards a target</item> + <item>ATTRACTION: A visual quality that provides a motivation for + (inter-)action, i. e. a visual clue</item> + <item>COUNTERFORCE: An object, agent or event that prevents a player from + acting as desired</item> + <item>LINK: A perceived junction between different game elements</item> + </list> + </div> + </div> + <div type="chapter"> + <head>3. Study setup</head> + + <p>With respect to the background knowledge laid out above, we designed a study setup + suitable to test our main hypotheses:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>Skill and preferred type of gameplay affect the way players spatially enact + a video game.</item> + <item>Enactivism: Not all observed types of spatial enactment can be explained + only by interaction with game induced affordances.</item> + </list> + + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>3.1 Sample generation</head> + + <p>As the preferred type of spatial gameplay cannot be easily predicted and are + part of the research question in this paper, sampling was done by skill level. + Skill level was explicitly assessed by possible participants and was verified + during the sessions. We looked for suitable candidates on the following skill + levels:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item> + <hi rend="italic">experienced gamers</hi> have played and finished a large + variety of video games and play regularly.</item> + <item> + <hi rend="italic">casual gamers</hi> are curious to play video games in + general, but only play on special occasions or do not continue playing after + a first glance.</item> + <item> + <hi rend="italic">no-gamers</hi> are aware of video games as means of + playing, but refuse to do so for several reasons.</item> + </list> + <p>We used a gatekeeper approach on the authors’ social network to cast possible + candidates. As we intended to conduct an explorative and qualitative study, we + limited the number of participants to simply covering the skill levels + mentioned above with at least one example. Perhaps due to the popularity of + streaming events in the community, we found much more experienced gamers than + needed and were able to conduct two spare game sessions for that group. For + casual and no-gamers we were able to conduct exactly one game session. </p> + <p> + <ref type="graphic" + target="#tab01">Table 1</ref> provides an overview + of the participants with respect to self-reported player type, gender, and age. + As we focus on the phase of early spatial accommodation in the game, the + minutes walked-along are the first minutes the specific player spent on playing + the example game. As our screencast approach did not work out properly on all + hardware, the number of minutes captured deviates from the minutes-along. + Minutes analysed cover phases of intense interaction with landscape cut from + the minutes captured.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">player type and ID</hi> + </cell> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">gender, age</hi> + </cell> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">technical limitations</hi> + </cell> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">minutes walked-along</hi> + </cell> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">minutes captured</hi> + </cell> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">minutes analysed</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>b: casual gamer</cell> + <cell>m, 22</cell> + <cell>game crashed after 16 minutes</cell> + <cell>45</cell> + <cell>16</cell> + <cell>10</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>i: no-gamer</cell> + <cell>f, 25</cell> + <cell/> + <cell>38</cell> + <cell>38</cell> + <cell>18</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>k: experienced gamer</cell> + <cell>m, 22</cell> + <cell>video corrupted</cell> + <cell>45</cell> + <cell>0</cell> + <cell>0</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>n: experienced gamer</cell> + <cell>m, 23</cell> + <cell/> + <cell>42</cell> + <cell>42</cell> + <cell>10</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>u: experienced gamer</cell> + <cell>m, 24</cell> + <cell>insufficient frame rate</cell> + <cell>45</cell> + <cell>45</cell> + <cell> + <p>0</p> + </cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab01"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab1">Tab. 1</ref>: Participants and amount of + analysed screencast. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t1"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>Our aim was to have at least one recording for each player type. Due to the + aforementioned technical problems, we had to conduct three playing sessions + with experienced gamers to fine tune our setup and to eventually obtain usable + material.</p> + </div> + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>3.2 Technical preparations</head> + + <p>All digital walk-alongs were conducted as online sessions. This allowed us to + react dynamically to the participants’ schedules in times of the COVID-19 + pandemic. We checked in advance that existing hardware met the requirements of + the game plus sufficient resources to run a video recording in the background. + To guarantee an equivalent setup, we first asked the participants to join a + <ref target="https://discord.com/">discord</ref> server instance established + for this purpose that was used for the screencast of this experiment and + installed and preconfigured <ref target="https://obsproject.com/">OBS + Studio</ref> for redundant on-site recording in higher quality. Video + connection was deactivated to save bandwidth during the screencast and + resources for parallel recording. We guided the participants through the + installation process of our example game. Depending on network connectivity and + load the technical setup took in between 30 and 45 minutes.</p> + </div> + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>3.3 Lab setup for experiment</head> + + <p>After the first start of the game, we guided the participants through the + configuration process of the game to make sure the same preconditions applied. + All participants were asked to choose the survival mode of the game which + focuses on surviving in a snowy landscape and doesn’t offer a rich narrative. + All participants were told to choose ›Pleasant Valley‹ as the starting region. + As the starting location is generated by a random seed in the game, all + participants started in different locations, but with comparable visual access + to landscape and infrastructure. <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_003">Figure 3</ref> shows a fan-made map of the game region. The easiest level + of difficulty, ›Pilgrim‹, was advised. Only the player can choose to pick + another gender than his own. In the end of the configuration process, the + game’s main mission was shown to the user.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_004">Figure 4</ref>. </note> All close + playing sessions were held in German, the mother tongue of all + participants.</p> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_003" url=".../medien/landscape_2022_003.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb3">Fig. 3</ref>: Fan made map of + ›Pleasant Valley‹. [<ref type="bibliography" target="#xhead_longdark_2019">XHead / stmSantana 2019</ref>]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_003"/> + </desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_004" url=".../medien/landscape_2022_004.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb4">Fig. 4</ref>: Main quest of The Long + Dark. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_004"/> + </desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + <p>After the game launched, we gave the participants a short introduction into the + game controls and answered their questions. After that we gave them the main + instruction: <quote>Now play the game the way you explore new games. Speak + to it!</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#hinterlandstudio_longdark_2019">Hinterland Studio 2017</ref>. </note> No further + information on the target of the study was given. While playing, we only + intervened to keep the participants speaking and to ask for their mindset on + interesting situations. All players reacted instantly to the loud background + music especially with respect to the communication via Discord and reduced the + master volume of the game. If we observed problems with game control within the + running gameplay, we offered assistance only concerning the underlying + interaction metaphor of the game and not for the toolbox provided. After around + 45 minutes, we concluded the sessions and did a short 5-10 minutes guided + interview on the experiences during the game. The main questions were:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item> + <quote>What did you experience?</quote> + </item> + <item> + <quote>How do you evaluate the game mechanics?</quote> + </item> + <item> + <quote>Would you keep on playing, if it was your game?</quote> + </item> + </list> + <p>The first question was meant to reveal insights into active mindsets that might + have been not discovered by observation yet. The second question gave us the + opportunity to check to what degree the participants were consumed with + complying to the game mechanics and to what degree there was time for random + exploration or perception. The last question helped us to understand how + motivated the participants were during gameplay. The findings largely verified + what we had observed so far.</p> + </div> + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>3.4 Example Game</head> + + <p>As an example, we use the video game <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl>, a game with simple game mechanics that is easily accessible even to + inexperienced participants. As a cultural artifact in the sense of critical + Canadiana wilderness discourses,<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#henderson_canadia_2001">Henderson 2001</ref>, p. + 809. </note> the game is located in a northern Canadian wilderness<note + type="footnote"> <ref type="bibliography" target="#bonner_wildnis_2018">Bonner 2018</ref> problematizes the notion of a wilderness in + video games that appears to be visually constructed as pristine.</note>. <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl> + <note type="footnote"> Initially financed by the Canada Media Fund, + subsequently realized via crowd-funding.</note> is ideally suited for the + present study because landscape here functions simultaneously as a + socioculturally charged construct, as a playing field, and as a game element, + which allows for a broad range of connective actions on the part of the + players. Moreover, as a so-called independent title,<note type="footnote" + > Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#martin_production_2009">Martin / Deuze 2009</ref>. </note> it is not subject to the mechanisms of + the mass market for video games, so that its reception by gamers seems not + easily predictable.</p> + <p>Despite the fact that <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl> does not require violent actions to survive, the game presents itself + from a first-person perspective known from shooter games. While this is + absolutely reasonable for the sake of impersonation and the game tries even to + intensify this impression by both auditive response on even smaller bodily + deficiencies and partially blurring the screen, when players are at the edge of + falling unconscious by thirst, cold or injuries, this might influence the way + participants perceive the game in general. Beside of <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_004">Figure 4</ref> no other narrative is superimposed + on the game, which in sum creates a perfect playground for individual + sense-making of the landscape. </p> + <p>Large parts of the game map are covered by snowed woods and fields,<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_005">Figure 5</ref>.</note> nested with a variety of build environments that + provide resources and shelter. Roads and power lines connect the different + parts of the map and can be used for navigation. ›Pleasant Valley‹ is + surrounded by a scenic mountain range, whose edges can be used for orientation. + As our key interest was to identify to what degree landscape was perceived as a + scenic setting, as a set of sheer affordances or if there were more individual + ways of spacing, <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl> provides all of these elements. Consistent with the game mechanics, the + game even offers the experience of different weather conditions, daylight and + night. Every action taken consumes a certain number of calories and even phases + of sleeping come at the cost of calories. As opportunities for interaction + exist both in the build and non-build environment in <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl>, landscape is usable as a field of affordances and not only evocating + mood or atmosphere.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div type="chapter"> + <head>4. Results</head> + + <p>All results were either obtained from our notes during the digital walk-alongs or + the guided interviews. Information from notes was then related back to the video + recordings we obtained from the participants after the sessions. Videos were used + both for verification of observations and quotes. In the temporal context of these + observations, videos were probed for other examples of interaction with + landscape.</p> + <p>We focussed on the experience of landscape in the narrow sense and thus excluded a + number of elements from our study.</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>bodily environment: the systemic importance of the human body for starving + and freezing in a survival game was reflected only by actions on the + landscape</item> + <item>built environment: only outside views of built environment were considered + part of the landscape</item> + </list> + <p>Assigning image schemata, we further followed a prototypical approach identifying + screenshots that reflected most the applicability of a scheme. We did not look + deeper into the lifecycle of an active scheme from its early beginnings to its + resolution.</p> + <p>Of course, our annotations reflect our experiences as players as well. We were + able to reflect the following skill levels useful to understand our + participants:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>very skilled player, who has played <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl> for some hours</item> + <item>casual player with little experience in first-person perspective games, who + has played <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl> only for study preparation purposes.</item> + </list> + <p>After having identified the prototypical key frames of image schemata we used the + web tool <ref target="https://recogito.pelagios.org/">Recogito</ref> to do + explorative annotations of the scenes.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_005">Figure 5</ref>. </note> Beside its + primary use case to annotate maps, it can be used to analyse any 2D-graphics as + well.</p> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_005" url=".../medien/landscape_2022_005.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb5">Fig. 5</ref>: Annotated key frame with + possible anchor regions wood, bridge, road, snowed meadow, building and + mountain range. Feature categories can be annotated in the data scheme of + Recogito, but not visualized as labels. Blurred edges in the field of + perception reflect that the avatar is hurt at the moment (bottom right + symbol). The four icons on the bottom left show the state of the four main + elements of the game mechanics: cold, tiredness, thirst and hunger. [Kremer + et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_005"/></desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + <p>In essence, our coding did a three-stage annotation of our key observations:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>Identify the key frame representing the scene of interaction</item> + <item>Identify the possible anchor regions in each scene. For each anchor region + we noted the scale as well loosely following Daniel Montello:<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#montello_scale_1993">Montello 1993</ref>. </note> S: nearby or haptic space; M: + vista space; L: visible, but not instantly reachable space</item> + <item>Identify the image schemata active at a specific anchor region according to + the behaviour or self-attributed mindset of the participant.</item> + </list> + <p>In the sense of an explorative study, we now discuss the edge cases found in the + individual spacings of landscape in detail.</p> + + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>4.1 Participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi> + </head> + + <p>Due to limited gaming skills, participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi> was not able + to perceive landscape any other than a game setting. Interaction with the + environment in general was a testing behaviour of real world induced hypotheses + (Can I burn this? Can I light up a fire there? Will the ice break?). Navigation + reacted strongly on salient features in the scene. During the whole session, + participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi> was completely challenged by complying to + the game mechanics and showed no other types of performing landscape.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 1: Wayfinding</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>path, attraction</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: bridge</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_006" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_006.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb6">Fig. 6</ref>: Bridge far back + in the forest. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_006"/> + </desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + </cell> + <cell> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_007" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_007.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb7">Fig. 7</ref>: Bridge appears + behind an edge of rock. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_007"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab02"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab2">Tab. 2</ref>: Situation 1: Wayfinding. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t2"/> + </trailer> + </table> + + <p>In this context, wayfinding tasks were observed. When looking for signs of + civilization, elements far in the background were discovered and followed + continuously. On first discovery as well as on arrival the element was + named:</p> + <p> + <quote>Da kommt ne Brücke.</quote> – <quote>There’s a bridge back + there.</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-26, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <p> + <quote>Da ist die Brücke wieder.</quote> – <quote>There’s that bridge + again.</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-26, originally stated in German, authors’ translation. + </note> + </p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 2: Ignored affordance</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>attraction</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>inactive schemata</cell> + <cell>path, enablement</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: power lines, road, bridge</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_008" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_008.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb8">Fig. 8</ref>: Crossing street + and power-line. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_008"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab03"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab3">Tab. 3</ref>: Situation 2: Ignored + affordance. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t3"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>While following this route, any other affordances were ignored, including roads + and power lines, which could have led to infrastructure elements much + quicker.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 3: Realism</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>blockage</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: frozen lake</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_009" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_009.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb9">Fig. 9</ref>: Frozen lake. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_009"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab04"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab4">Tab. 4</ref>: Situation 3: + Realism. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t4" + /> + </trailer> + </table> + + <p>Shortly after having crossed the road and reaching a frozen lake, this was + found to be some blockage:</p> + <p> + <quote>Mal gucken, ob ich da einbrech.</quote> – <quote>Let's see if I can + break in there.</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-26, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + </div> + + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>4.2 Participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi> + </head> + + <p>Participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi> showed a very strong preference for + aesthetic qualities right from the beginning. He reacted to attractions of any + kind, even if it was not clear if it would endanger him with respect to the + game mechanics or cost at least time for backtracking. He also showed a strong + collection behaviour which led to an overweight backpack before end of the + short explorative session.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 4: Landscape as attraction</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>attraction</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: mountain range</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_010" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_010.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb10">Fig. 10</ref>: Mountain view. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_010"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + <cell> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_011" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_011.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb11">Fig. 11</ref>: Repeated + Mountain view. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_011"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab05"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab5">Tab. 5</ref>: Situation 4: Landscape as + attraction. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t5"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>In the very first seconds of the game, the mountain range in the background + gained his attention making up his plans:</p> + <p> + <quote>Natürlich, mich ziehen die Berge da hinten an.</quote> – <quote>Of + course, I'm attracted to the mountains back there.</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-24, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <p>Later on, he affirmed his intent to go to the mountains, and even when elements + of civilization offering better shelter were already discovered, he only used + them for preparing:</p> + <p> + <quote>Ich weiß natürlich nicht, ob das überlebenstechnisch sinnvoll wäre, aber + ich würde hier in den Wald hinten reingehen, also die Berge, aber erst mal + schau ich, was es hier so gibt.</quote> – <quote>I don't know if that would + make sense survival-wise, of course, but I would go in the back of the woods + here, so the mountains, but first I'll see what's around.</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-24, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 5 / 6: Landscape as atmospheric aura</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>attraction</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>S: footprint, L: wood</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_012" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_012.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb12">Fig. 12</ref>: Footprints in + the snow. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_012"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_013" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_013.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb13">Fig. 13</ref>:Snowy tree + trunks. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_013"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab06"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab6">Tab. 6</ref>: Situation 5 / 6: Landscape + as atmospheric aura. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t6"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>He paid attention to details of the game visualization itself, taking notice of + footprints as special effects and showed signs of irritation to visualizations + not consistent with real-world experiences. In detail, he complained about the + tree trunks being snow covered from all directions which is in conflict with a + major wind heading during a precipitation event.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 7: Atmospheric indoor scenes</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>attraction, enablement</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>S: grill</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_014" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_014.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb14">Fig. 14</ref>: Grill fire. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_014"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab07"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab7">Tab. 7</ref>: Situation 7: Atmospheric + indoor scenes. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t7"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>When he reached a barn building, he discovered a grill inside which imposed the + strong affordance to him to light up a fire, evaluating his efforts with:</p> + <p> + <quote>Romantischer wird’s nicht.</quote> – <quote>It doesn't get more romantic + than that.</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-24, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <p>After he realized:</p> + <p> + <quote>Verdammt, ich hab nichts zum Grillen dabei!</quote> – <quote>Damn, I + didn't bring anything to grill!</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-24, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <p>He looked up his bag and finally discovered that the game allowed him to grill + a can of peaches.</p> + <p>Even if it does not precisely fit our understanding of landscape defined above + and even if this scene doesn’t lack a portion of self-stated irony, it shows + how much situational pleasure can be obtained from simply staging explorative + game play that does not relate to the core game mechanics at all.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 8: Trap</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>blockage, container</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: farm building</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_015" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_015.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb15">Fig. 15</ref>: Darkness. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_015"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab08"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab8">Tab. 8</ref>: Situation 8: Trap. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t8"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>In the same barn, shortly after the grill session, he realized that his joy of + grilling peaches led to a blockage situation, because he had no light source to + find his way back to the door:</p> + <p> + <quote>Oh verdammt, ich find den Ausgang wahrscheinlich nicht mehr!</quote> – + <quote>Oh damn, I probably won't be able to find the exit.</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-3-24, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + </div> + + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>4.3 Participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi> + </head> + + <p>Being the most experienced one amongst our participants, player <hi + rend="italic">n</hi> acted so controlled and calm that he had the + opportunity to do some exploration tasks and even took his time to visualize + his mindset by movement for the audience. Especially on that low level of + difficulty he never got close to failing. Over time he grew more and more + bored, especially unsatisfied with the amount of time it took to cross the + landscape between different points of interaction. In his approach, landscape + acted as a rich context for decision making and explorative tasks.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 9: Contextualization on the move</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>path, enablement</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: road</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_016" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_016.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb16">Fig. 16</ref>: Following a + road. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_016"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_017" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_017.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb17">Fig. 17</ref>: Context view + from road. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_017"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab09"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab9">Tab. 9</ref>: Situation 9: + Contextualization on the move. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t9"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>He never followed a path exclusively like in situation 2 (<ref type="graphic" + target="#tab03">table 3</ref>). Situation 9 (<ref type="graphic" + target="#tab09">table 9</ref>) shows an example of quick + orientation glances he routinely integrated in the performance of a path. This + behaviour gave him the opportunity to always think of further options.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 10: Backtracking behaviour</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>blockage, path</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: power line</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_018" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_018.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb18">Fig. 18</ref>: End of + power-line. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_018"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab010"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab10">Tab. 10</ref>: Situation 10: Backtracking + behaviour. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t10"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>When he reached the end of a power line, but not the end of the road yet, he + instantly realized that he must have reached a level boundary of ›Pleasant + Valley‹, which caused him to backtrack immediately.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 11: Shortcut</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>blockage, path</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>M: tree trunk</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_019" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_019.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb19">Fig. 19</ref>: Path blockage by + tree trunk. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_019"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab011"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab11">Tab. 11</ref>: Situation 11: Shortcut. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t11"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>Returning from an exploration lap to the starting point, he once more + complained about the time it took. After facing a tree trunk as a visual + blockage, he started to walk right in the woods, what he hoped to be a + shortcut:</p> + <p> + <quote>Wo läufst Du jetzt grad hin?</quote> [observer] <quote>Ich hab keine + Ahnung!</quote> – <quote>Where are you going right now?</quote> [observer] + <quote>I have no idea!</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-4-7, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <p>Interestingly, this decision point marked the beginning of him growing bored. + Shortly thereafter, he tested if a steep slope would do harm to his avatar and + after eventually experiencing some injuries, he fell out of impersonation and + started to talk about his avatar as <quote>you</quote> and not as + <quote>I</quote> further on.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 12 / 13: Non-human actors</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>counterforce</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>S: animal</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_020" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_020.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb20">Fig. 20</ref>: Wolf back the + road. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_022"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_021" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_021.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb21">Fig. 21</ref>: Nearby passing + deer. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_021"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab012"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab12">Tab. 12</ref>: Situation 12 / + 13: Non-Human actors. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t12"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>Animals are usually distant encounters on the easiest level of difficulty, if + the player does not explicitly intend to fight or to hunt. A wolf far down the + road did not scare participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi>. The more he startled, + when a deer overtook him in high speed, just to turn around in an erratic + movement pattern and pass his other side:</p> + <p> + <quote>Jesus! Der Hirsch hat mich erschreckt!</quote> – <quote>Jesus! The deer + scared me!</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-4-7, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <p>In this case it was less due to gameplay then to the unanticipated movement + pattern.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 14: Spatial decision making</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>path, enablement</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>S: road signs, M: road, M: path</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_022" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_022.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb22">Fig. 22</ref>: Road signs + indicating mining. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_022"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_023" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_023.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb23">Fig. 23</ref>: Path followed so + far. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_023"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab013"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab13">Tab. 13</ref>: Situation 14: Spatial + decision making. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t13"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>Similar to situation 9 (<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t9">table + 9</ref>), he stopped on his path when he reached signs and a path pointing + to a mine up in the mountains. He oscillated a few times back and forth between + the two views, clarifying his decision making with the words:</p> + <p> + <quote>Mine oder Zivilisation?</quote> – <quote>Mine or civilization?</quote> + <note type="footnote"> Participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi>, close playing + session on 2021-4-7, originally stated in German, authors’ + translation.</note> + </p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 15: Heading calibration</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>path</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>L: mountain</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_024" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_024.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb24">Fig. 24</ref>: Mountain view. + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_024"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab014"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab14">Tab. 14</ref>: Situation 15: Heading + calibration. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t14"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>During his way up to the mine, he repeatedly raised his head to get feedback + from a nearby mountain on his heading, because the path to the mine was not + clearly visible in all places. This marked one of a few key frames that showed + the usability of vertical elements of a landscape as landmarks.</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Situation 16: Landscape as atmospheric glance</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>active schemata</cell> + <cell>attraction</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>anchor region</cell> + <cell>L: waterfall, L: mountain scene</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell><graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_025" + url=".../medien/landscape_2022_025.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb25">Fig. 25</ref>: Panorama with + waterfall. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_025"/></desc> + </graphic></cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab015"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab15">Tab. 15</ref>: Situation 16: Landscape as + atmospheric glance. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t15"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>After leaving the mine and before returning to the path downhill he stood for a + few seconds perceiving an atmospheric mountain scene with a waterfall. Whereas + this must not be overstated, he would not have done so, if nothing had + attracted him.</p> + </div> + <div type="subchapter"> + <head>4.4 Observed patterns and similarities</head> + + <p>As expected, we were able to identify <hi rend="italic">landscape</hi> both </p> + <list type="ordered"> + <item>as means of complying to game mechanics (find resources and survive) and </item> + <item>as a rich setting that invites exploration and interaction (grill some + peaches). </item> + </list> + <p>Nevertheless, amongst the two more experienced players two very individual ways + of performing gameplay on a landscape were observed:</p> + <list type="unordered"> + <item>Landscape as aura: participant <hi rend="italic">b</hi> made the plan to + hide in the forest and try to reach the mountain from the very first glance + on the mountain scene and regarded all possible shelters as only a possible + source of equipment afterwards. He also reacted very strongly to the + aesthetic quality of the visualization of footprints and the performative + quality to grill food.</item> + <item>Landscape as context: participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi>, never happy + with the game setting right from the beginning, systematically scanned the + landscape for game elements providing the experience of joy and took any + opportunity for explorative backtracking behaviour. When the relation of + playtime and played time started to bother him and he started to get bored, + he focused on the exploration of the game mechanic.</item> + </list> + <p>In essence, individual spacing in video games varies not only with gaming + skills, but also with individual preferences of enacting landscape-like + environments.</p> + <p>Methodically, all types of pre-chosen image schemata can be observed. + Non-recurring patterns cover <hi rend="italic">container</hi> and <hi + rend="italic">counterforce</hi>. Container as a cognitively very productive, + hierarchy building pattern<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#tversky_maps_1993">Tversky 1993</ref>.</note> was + not observed, as exploration of the valley did not last long enough to either + identify different regions of the ›Pleasant Valley‹ or neighbouring top level + regions. Counterforces are not observed as the landscape does not present + itself as immediately hostile in terms of aggressive animals or avalanches, but + starts a silent process of freezing and starvation on a more subtle level. All + other image schemata resample a rich variety of opportunities for interaction + with the landscape and obstacles blocking them. Attractions can be both an + iconic view or an object offering an affordance to act upon (<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t16">Table 16</ref>).</p> + <table> + <row> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Image schema</hi> + </cell> + <cell> + <hi rend="bold">Number of scenes (n=16)</hi> + </cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>Container</cell> + <cell>1</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>Enablement</cell> + <cell>4</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>Blockage</cell> + <cell>4</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>Path</cell> + <cell>7</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>Attraction</cell> + <cell>6</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>Counterforce</cell> + <cell>1</cell> + </row> + <row> + <cell>Link</cell> + <cell>1</cell> + </row> + + <trailer xml:id="tab016"> + <ref type="intern" target="#tab16">Tab. 16</ref>: Number of image schemata + applied (multiple tagging). [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t16"/> + </trailer> + </table> + <p>A simple similarity measure can be applied. A scene is therefore represented by + its vector of all image schemata. Each component is assigned to one of the + ordinal values <hi rend="italic">active</hi>, <hi rend="italic">inactive</hi> + or <hi rend="italic">non-existent</hi>. Formally:</p> + <p>An image scene is a vector: s = (Container, Enablement, Blockage, Path, + Attraction, Counterforce, Link) with s ∈ {active, inactive, non-existent}â· </p> + <p>Similarity is then computed by a simple component distance measure on the + defined ordinal scale divided by maximum value of 14 for normalization + purposes. The derived index ranges from 0 (maximal similarity) to 1 (maximal + dissimilarity). The measure is symmetric.</p> + <p>Taken from the scenes above, <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_026">Figure 26</ref> shows an example of two different scenes with maximal + structural similarity (index: 0), both tagged with ›blockage‹. In contrast, + <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_027">Figure 27</ref> shows two + pictures of a road but in completely different tasks and perspectives (index: + 0,36).</p> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_026" url=".../medien/landscape_2022_026.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb26">Fig. 26</ref>: Example of structural + equivalent scene (blockage; participant i vs. participant n). [Kremer et + al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_026"/> + </desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + <figure> + <graphic xml:id="landscape_2022_027" url=".../medien/landscape_2022_027.png"> + <desc> + <ref type="graphic" target="#abb27">Fig. 27</ref>: Example of structural + different scene (functions of road and power-line, participant i vs. + participant n). [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_027"/> + </desc> + </graphic> + </figure> + </div> + </div> + <div type="chapter"> + <head>5. Discussion</head> + + <p>All pre-identified image schemata are useful to provide information on individual + spacings of landscape in our close playing walk-along sessions. Due to the + exclusion of the systemic environment of the avatar body and the exclusion of + build environment, tasks of landmark driven navigation (paths) are most + productive. Because the experiment was laid out to observe early appropriation of + a game unknown before to the players, a lot of explorative behaviour including + reaction on attractions as affordances<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#gibson_umwelt_1982">Gibson + 1982</ref>.</note> or back-tracking<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#kremer_coices_2013">Kremer et al. 2013</ref>, p. + 3.</note> was taking place. From our limited sample, we can raise the + hypothesis that skilled players are more likely to show curiosity or enjoying + familiarization of a new game, as they have the capabilities to adapt quickly to + game control and are trained to anticipate the core principles of any game + mechanic. Observations made during the digital walkalongs reveal that the + comparison to other known games are made on early appropriation in order to + accommodate with the game. Of course, the sheer aesthetics of the visualization of + landscape in video games can be observed several times while watching mountain + scenes. As <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl> as a survivable game doesn’t offer rich possibilities of interaction + outside shelters and puts a focus on a proportional relation of played time and + play time, not many other agents were perceived as counterforce.</p> + <p>Although our coding scheme is designed to annotate partonomies of anchor regions + or taxonomies of image schemata, we were not able to observe such complex + patterns. Our observations indicate that active image schemata are always bound to + a set of higher-level intentions rendering other potential image schemata + inactive. Only participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi> performed a continuous active + scan for context. Partially due to a lack of recognition capabilities with less + experienced players, we know from computer and cognitive science that intentions + are a powerful filter mechanism in general.<note type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#kiefer_intention_2012">Kiefer 2012</ref>. + </note> In detail, we saw:</p> + <list type="ordered"> + <item>Active intention sets effectively block affordances.<note type="footnote" + > Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#kiefer_intention_2012">Kiefer 2012</ref>; situation 1, wayfinding (<ref type="graphic" + target="#tab02">table 2</ref>): <quote>There’s something red + back there!</quote>.</note> + </item> + <item>Empty intention sets<note type="footnote"> For information on the + computational approach of mobile intention recognition see Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#kiefer_intention_2012">Kiefer 2012</ref>; + due to boredom: cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#kiefer_starting_2014">Kiefer et al. 2014</ref>.</note> react to almost any + environmental affordance.<note type="footnote"> E. g. situation 11, shortcut (<ref type="graphic" + target="#tab011">table 11</ref>).</note> + </item> + <item>Higher level intentions stay active for a long time.<note type="footnote" + > This is reoccurring in situation 4, landscape as attraction (<ref type="graphic" + target="#tab05">table 5</ref>) with the wish to + visit the mountains.</note> + </item> + </list> + <p>In addition, very strong occurrences of the scheme ›attraction‹ like the farm + building in scene 8 that reveal to provide major blockage schemata on entering + simply by darkness can be classified as a trap. </p> + <p>We showed that similarity of (active) image schemata provides solid means to + compare the visual relevance of scenes to different players. Other than close + readings of sceneries that superimpose external attribution by the coder on the + one hand and intention sets that focus completely on the player’s mindset on the + other, image schemata provide structural means to identify task oriented active + and inactive visualities and thus act as a link between the other two approaches. + Of course, similarity measures can be easily fine-grained to include the scale and + feature type of anchor regions and tested on their specific effect sizes.</p> + <p>Our study setup proved to provide a solid ground for testing of our hypotheses as + we used a widely controlled lab setup, a well-established method of observation + (walk-alongs) and a well-understood annotation technique (image schemata). The + game itself revealed to be the right choice as a playground for different + sense-makings of landscape. Neither a dense narrative nor a common-sense context + of fighting was superimposed to the game situation, which encouraged individual + intentions. As opportunities for interaction exist both in build and non-build + environment in <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl>, landscape was usable as a field of affordances and not only evocating + mood or atmosphere.</p> + <p>Nevertheless, as our study setup was experimental, we can ex post recommend + several opportunities for optimization. As the study setup was held in private via + screencast, it was not possible to control a number of factors including hardware + resources, incidence of light, brightness of monitor on site and effect of + possible other persons present. Also, due to the experimental setting, we tried to + focus widely on observation and only encouraged ongoing verbalization of + perceptions, plans and (inter)action. With the coding scheme derived from the + data, it should be easy now to ask in detail for active intentions to distinguish + between not recognized game elements and those filtered by task orientation. To + keep on not disturbing the participants in their choice making in the game, + confronting the participants with the video material captured directly after the + playing sessions for cross validation purposes would provide optimal results. This + approach would accelerate the check for usable material at the same time. The + skill level of the participants now relies on self-attribution and observation. A + more structured approach would be to hold a questionnaire in front of the playing + session or even on sample generation.</p> + <p>A variety of future research is fostered by our findings. As image schemata are a + structural query ontology suitable for carrying different semantics, it should be + easy to transfer the method of digital walk-alongs back to real world situations. + Especially interesting is to capture not only video material of these walks, but + also to record eye tracking data from the first-person perspective.<note + type="footnote"> Cf. <ref type="bibliography" target="#kiefer_starting_2014">Kiefer et al. 2014</ref>.</note> This would also allow for + verification of relevant features and measure focus times. Using such temporal + structured data would also allow for an analysis of the temporal lifecycle of + active image schemata, i. e. from their very beginning (discovering) to the end of + relevance (leaving behind). </p> + </div> + <div type="chapter"> + <head>6. Conclusion</head> + + <p>In our experimental approach to obtain more detailed information on individual + sense-making of the geographic concept of landscape in video games, first, we used + a phenomenological framework to look for individual differences in both perception + and conception of landscape. We frame landscape as primarily visual accessible, + (re-)constructed by socio-cultural assumptions in the very moment of watching. + While on the move, landscapes can be understood as a stream of consciousness + continuously reshaped and evaluated according to the intentionality and (silent) + expectations of the player. Landscapes can be used to create a certain mood or + atmosphere but can also offer a rich field of affordances, evocative spaces that + hide their opportunities for interaction behind visual clues. Taking advantage of + that, narratives in the game do not necessarily have to be told explicitly, but + are produced by players on interaction with the game environment.</p> + <p>Second, we extended the established practice of close playing to accompanied + digital walk-alongs, separating the roles of player and observer. In doing so, we + mitigated priming biases and context switches and were able to strengthen our + results in an experiment-like situation. Following the well-understood instrument + of image schemata, we developed a simple coding scheme to annotate active visual + elements of engagement and interaction in screencast videos obtained from playing + sessions. Our expectation was to observe individual ways of sense-making of + landscape in video game environments, varying by skill of player and type of + enacting. We selected the game <bibl> + <title type="desc">The Long Dark</title> + </bibl>, a survival game in the Canadian wilderness that does neither superimpose + a strong narrative nor a context of fighting used in many other games. This gave + us the opportunity to watch different types of gameplay unfold.</p> + <p>In essence, we found that an individual sense-making beyond sheer affordances can + only happen with a certain skill level in the familiarization process of games. + Our participant not used to playing video games was continuously challenged by the + task of managing the game mechanics and simply had no time for individual + sense-making. One of our more experienced participants used landscape intensely as + context for exploration behaviour, both to learn about evocative spaces and game + mechanics. A third participant strongly reacted to the visual quality of landscape + as an aura which significantly determined his intentions for the whole session. + Making use of our structural annotation scheme of image schemata we proposed a + simple similarity measure to compute the degree of congruence between different + styles of interaction in comparable scenes. Interestingly, we were able to observe + that intentions can act as an effective filter for visual-sense making, rendering + different conceptions of similar views.</p> + <p>Next steps cover the opportunity to use our study setup, which proved to provide + solid ground for observation, in real-world environments. Our current approach can + be further enhanced by focusing more on the influence of active intentions on + visual sense-making of landscapes. 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[Kremer et al. 2022] <ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t1"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb3">Fan made map of ›Pleasant + Valley‹. [XHead / stmSantana 2019]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_003" + /></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb4">Main quest of The Long Dark. [Kremer et al. + 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_004"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb5">Annotated key frame with possible anchor regions + wood, bridge, road, snowed meadow, building and mountain range. Feature categories + can be annotated in the data scheme of Recogito, but not visualized as labels. + Blurred edges in the field of perception reflect that the avatar is hurt at the + moment (bottom right symbol). The four icons on the bottom left show the state of + the four main elements of the game mechanics: cold, tiredness, thirst and + hunger. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_005" + /></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab2"><ref target="#tab02" type="intern">Tab. 2</ref>: + Situation 1: Wayfinding. [Kremer et al. 2022] <ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t2"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb6">Bridge far back in the forest. [Kremer et al. + 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_006"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb7">Bridge appears behind an edge of rock. [Kremer et + al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_007"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab3"><ref target="#tab03" type="intern">Tab. 3</ref>: + Situation 2: Ignored affordance. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t3"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb8">Crossing street and power-line. [Kremer et al. + 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_008"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab4"><ref target="#tab04" type="intern">Tab. 4</ref>: + Situation 3: Realism. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t4"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb9">Frozen lake. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_009"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab5"><ref target="#tab05" type="intern">Tab. 5</ref>: + Situation 4: Landscape as attraction. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t5"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb10">Mountain view. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_010"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb11">Repeated Mountain view. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_011"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab6"><ref target="#tab06" type="intern">Tab. 6</ref>: + Situation 5 / 6: Landscape as atmospheric aura. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t6"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb12">Footprints in the snow. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_012"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb13">Snowy tree trunks. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_013"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab7"><ref target="#tab07" type="intern">Tab. 7</ref>: + Situation 7: Atmospheric indoor scenes. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t7"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb14">Grill fire. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_014"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab8"><ref target="#tab08" type="intern">Tab. 8</ref>: + Situation 8: Trap. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t8"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb15">Darkness. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_015"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab9"><ref target="#tab09" type="intern">Tab. 9</ref>: + Situation 9: Contextualization on the move. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t9"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb16">Following a road. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_016"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb17">Context view from road. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_017"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab10"><ref target="#tab010" type="intern">Tab. 10</ref>: + Situation 10: Backtracking behaviour. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t10"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb18">End of power-line. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_018"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab11"><ref target="#tab011" type="intern">Tab. 11</ref>: + Situation 11: Shortcut. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t11"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb19">Path blockage by tree trunk. [Kremer et al. + 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_019"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab12"><ref target="#tab012" type="intern">Tab. 12</ref>: + Situation 12 / 13: Non-Human actors. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t12"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb20">Wolf back the road. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_020"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb21">Nearby passing deer. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_021"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab13"><ref target="#tab013" type="intern">Tab. 13</ref>: + Situation 14: Spatial decision making. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t13"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb22">Road signs indicating mining. [Kremer et al. + 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_022"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb23">Path followed so far. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_023"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab14"><ref target="#tab014" type="intern">Tab. 14</ref>: + Situation 15: Heading calibration. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_t14"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb24">Mountain view. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_024"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab15"><ref target="#tab015" type="intern">Tab. 15</ref>: + Situation 16: Landscape as atmospheric glance. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t15"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb25">Panorama with waterfall. [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_025"/></desc> + <desc type="table" xml:id="tab16"><ref target="#tab016" type="intern">Tab. 16</ref>: + Number of image schemata applied (multiple tagging). [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref + type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_t16"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb26">Example of structural equivalent scene (blockage; + participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi> vs. participant <hi rend="italic">n</hi>). + [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" target="#landscape_2022_026"/></desc> + <desc type="graphic" xml:id="abb27">Example of structural different scene (functions + of road and power-line, participant <hi rend="italic">i</hi> vs. participant <hi + rend="italic">n</hi>). [Kremer et al. 2022]<ref type="graphic" + target="#landscape_2022_027"/></desc> + </div> + </div> + </body> + </text> +</TEI>